ENERGY-EFFICIENT ROUTING MODELS AND ALGORITHMS IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have become an essential component of modern monitoring and communication systems due to their wide range of applications in environmental monitoring, healthcare, industrial automation, military surveillance, and smart city infrastructures. However, the limited energy resources of sensor nodes remain a significant challenge that directly affects network lifetime and overall performance. Routing protocols play a crucial role in minimizing energy consumption and ensuring efficient data transmission within the network. This study analyzes various energy-efficient routing models and algorithms used in wireless sensor networks, including flat-based, hierarchical, location-based, and hybrid routing approaches. Special attention is given to widely adopted protocols such as SPIN, Directed Diffusion, LEACH, HEED, TEEN, APTEEN, PEGASIS, GAF, and GEAR. The comparative analysis evaluates their energy efficiency, scalability, routing mechanisms, and impact on network lifetime. The findings indicate that hierarchical and location-based routing protocols generally provide superior energy conservation compared to traditional flat-based approaches. Furthermore, emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, energy harvesting, and Internet of Things integration are discussed as promising directions for future research. The study concludes that selecting an appropriate routing protocol significantly contributes to improving network sustainability, reliability, and operational efficiency in wireless sensor networks.