G²LM|LIC- Differential Earnings, Household Division of Labor and Fertility Choices: An Application of the “Doing Gender” Hypothesis in Ghana

The study employed both purposive and snowball sampling techniques for the selection of its participants. Participants were obtained from the Ashanti, Northern, Volta, Greater-Accra and Upper East regions. The sample selection was intended to reflect the five major ethnic groupings in Ghana, based on the country’s 2010 population and housing census which considers Akans, Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, Ga-Dangme and Gurma as the five major ethnic groupings in Ghana. Participants from these ethnic groups were therefore sampled from across the regions where they are more likely to be concentrated. There are noticeable differences in socio-cultural norms and economic practices among women from the northern (i.e. Northern and Upper East regions) and southern (i.e. Greater Accra, Ashanti, Volta regions) parts of the country. Traditional gender roles tend to be more pronounced in the northern, compared to southern regions, and women tend to carry out a larger proportion, if not all, of domestic chores. With respect to economic practices, in northern Ghana, poverty is more pronounced and gender inequality is more pronounced. This is typically demonstrated by higher incidences of early marriage, lower female enrollment rates and lower labor force participation. The sampling strategy used provides the opportunity to capture the diversity in the culture and norms concerning attitudes and perceptions regarding the distribution and dynamism of household responsibilities and how it relates to women’s empowerment and other related outcomes. The study relied on in-depth life-history interviews and key-informant interviews to obtain the required information. In each region, ten (10) couples and two (2) key informants- male and female- were interviewed. In total, 110 respondents (50 couples and 10 key informants) made up the sample size. To capture heterogeneity in responses, we considered couples from low-, middle- and high-income brackets. In each region, five of the life-history interviews were conducted in urban areas while the other five were held in rural areas. All couple interviews were conducted separately although the interviews for both spouses were conducted simultaneously. The study relied on semi-structured interviews to elicit information from participants. In those localities where the researchers did not speak the local language, interviews were conducted with the assistance of interpreters. All interviews were carried out in the homes of the participants and were audio recorded with the permission of the participants. Audio-recorded interviews were transcribed and translated verbatim into English from the local languages. For interviews conducted in English, audio recorded data were transcribed. Analytic rigour was ensured through comparisons of notes and recordings taken during the sessions with respondents. Thematic analysis was used to organize and categorize the data according to patterns and structures that connected the themes. Thematic analysis was performed by identifying, analysing and reporting themes across the narratives. After a careful examination of the data, codes were generated and themes were developed from the text. An inductive approach was therefore adopted in the development of the qualitative codes where research findings were allowed to emerge from the frequent or dominant themes contained in the data. To ensure accuracy, initial themes were checked by other researchers on the research team. The researchers carefully considered all the ethical issues involved in conducting research. Clearance for the study was obtained after going through ethical review by the Ethics Committee for the Humanities, University of Ghana. Consent was sought from all participants before proceeding with the study. Anonymity of participants are ensured by using pseudonyms to identify each respondent.

本研究采用目的性抽样（purposive sampling）与滚雪球抽样（snowball sampling）相结合的方法遴选研究对象。研究对象招募自加纳的阿散蒂、北部、沃尔特、大阿克拉以及上东部地区。本次抽样旨在体现加纳五大主要族群的分布特征，依据该国2010年人口与住房普查结果，该普查将阿肯族、莫莱-达格巴尼族、埃维族、加-丹格梅族以及古尔马族确定为加纳五大主要族群。因此，研究从各族群相对集中的区域中抽取对应族群的参与者。该国北部（即北部与上东部地区）与南部（即大阿克拉、阿散蒂、沃尔特地区）的女性在社会文化规范与经济实践层面存在显著差异。相较于南部地区，北部地区的传统性别角色更为突出，女性需承担几乎全部乃至全部的家务劳动。在经济实践方面，加纳北部的贫困与性别不平等问题更为严峻，具体表现为早婚率更高、女性入学率更低以及女性劳动力参与率更低。本次抽样策略能够捕捉到不同文化与规范下的多样性，这些文化与规范围绕家庭责任分配及其动态变化、以及其与女性赋权及其他相关结果的关联，形成了相应的态度与认知。本研究通过深度生活史访谈与关键知情人访谈获取所需数据。每个地区均访谈了10对夫妇与2名关键知情人（分别为男性与女性）。最终样本总量为110名受访者（50对夫妇与10名关键知情人）。为捕捉受访者回答的异质性，研究纳入了来自低收入、中等收入以及高收入阶层的夫妇。每个地区的5场深度生活史访谈在城市区域开展，另外5场则在农村区域开展。所有夫妇访谈均分开进行，但夫妻双方的访谈同步开展。本研究采用半结构化访谈来从参与者处获取信息。在研究者不掌握当地语言的区域，访谈借助翻译人员协助完成。所有访谈均在参与者家中开展，并经参与者同意后进行录音。录音访谈内容被逐字转录，并从当地语言翻译为英语；对于以英语开展的访谈，则直接对录音数据进行转录。研究通过将访谈过程中记录的笔记与录音进行比对，确保分析的严谨性。本研究采用主题分析法对数据进行组织与分类，依据连接各主题的模式与结构进行梳理。主题分析法通过识别、分析并解读各类叙事中的主题来开展。在对数据进行细致检视后，研究人员生成编码并从文本中提炼出主题。因此，本研究采用归纳法生成质性编码，即允许研究发现从数据中频繁出现或占主导的主题中自然涌现。为确保编码准确性，研究团队的其他研究者会对初始主题进行复核。研究人员审慎考量了研究开展过程中涉及的各项伦理问题。本研究已通过加纳大学人文伦理委员会的伦理审查并获得许可。在启动研究前，研究人员已向所有参与者征得知情同意。通过使用化名标识每位受访者，确保了参与者的匿名性。