Flavours of Desire: Cognitive Representations of Appetitive Stimuli and Their Motivational Implications, 2018-2019

How do people cognitively represent appetitive stimuli? Do interactions with appetitive stimuli shape how we think about them, and do such representations affect motivation to consume? Although much is known about how people respond to appetitive stimuli, little is known about how they are represented. We examine this in the domain of sugar-sweetened drinks, which constitute a significant self-control problem for many people. Given people’s rich and diverse learning histories of consuming them, we propose that representations of these stimuli will show high variability, and that they will reflect idiosyncratic simulations, or re-enactments, of previous consumption experiences. Representing drinks in terms of consuming and enjoying them may predict the motivation to consume. In three experiments (total N = 457), participants described non-alcoholic drinks in a “feature listing task”, a free production task to assess cognitive representations of concepts through natural language. We also measured consumption frequency, desire to drink, and intake (Exp. 3), and we measured (Exp. 1 and 2) or manipulated (Exp. 3) thirst. Illustrating the variability of participants’ representations of drinks, participants reported a large number of different features (210-331 unique features per drink). Drinks were described heavily with words related to consumption and reward experiences, especially sugary drinks, and especially when consumed frequently. Consumption and reward features predicted desire and intake, more strongly than thirst. These findings suggest that simulations of previous rewarding interactions play a key role in representations of appetitive stimuli, and that understanding these representations may be useful across domains of appetitive behaviour.<p>What is the motivation for consuming sugary drinks? Why do some people choose Coke, and others water, to accompany their dinner or to quench their thirst? We know very little about the psychological processes underlying these behaviours. While the motivation for unhealthy food has been researched extensively, the motivation for sugary drinks remains understudied, despite their negative health implications. Up to 19% of daily calorie intake consists of sugar from drinks, and the consumption of sugary drinks contributes to weight gain. The consumption of sugary drinks is a main contributor to poor dental health and to overweight, which cost the NHS 3.4 billon and 4.7 billion a year in England alone (Public Health England, 2014). Especially given the recent media attention, many consumers are aware of the health implications of sugary drinks, but struggle to successfully reduce their intake. Therefore, it is important to understand what underlies the motivation for sugary drinks, and how we can effectively assist consumers in replacing sugary drinks with healthier alternatives such as water.

We propose that sugary drinks gain their attractiveness through consumption and reward simulations. In other words, when people see or think about a sugary drink, they spontaneously simulate (i.e., re-experience) the sensation and the reward of consuming it, such as its taste, the resulting energy boost, and the quenching of thirst, based on their previous, rewarding experiences. These simulations trigger a desire to consume sugary drinks, particularly when feeling thirsty. Although evidence exists for the role of such simulations in the motivation for food, no previous studies have applied this account to drinks. Our research will first systematically test this simulation account of the motivation for sugary drinks, and then use it to stimulate healthier choices in innovative ways.

In Subproject 1, we will investigate the specific simulations that are triggered by sugary drinks and by water. Building on recent pilot data that we have collected, we expect that sugary drinks will trigger more consumption and reward simulations than water, particularly among high consumers of sugary drinks, and particularly when thirsty. In Subproject 2, we will link these consumption and reward simulations to the motivation to consume sugary drinks and water. To this end, we will use a novel method to assess motivation unobtrusively: we will measure the degree to which participants slightly lean forward on a Wii balance board when viewing images of drinks. Such subtle approach movements have been shown to reflect motivation and desire. We predict that more consumption and reward simulations will be associated with leaning forward more toward sugary drinks images, especially among high consumers of sugary drinks and especially when thirsty.

Finally, in Subproject 3, we will use these findings to develop an intervention approach to help consumers replace sugary drinks with water. Typically, advertisements for sugary drinks focus heavily on consumption and reward, whereas advertisements for water focus on purity and health benefits. We propose that motivation for consuming water can be increased by boosting consumption and reward simulations, in a similar way as for sugary drinks. Thus, we will test whether using images and words that trigger consumption and reward simulations for drinking water makes water more attractive and increases water choices, and reduces choices for sugary drinks. We will test this in both online and field experiments with actual consumers in naturalistic settings.

Together, these experiments will help us understand what makes sugary drinks so difficult to resist, and how health practitioners, intervention developers, and industry can boost the motivational appeal of healthier alternatives to stimulate healthier beverage choices.</p>

人们如何对欲求性刺激（appetitive stimuli）进行认知表征？与欲求性刺激的互动是否会塑造人们对其的认知方式，而这种表征又是否会影响消费动机？尽管人们对欲求性刺激的反应机制已有较多了解，但对其认知表征方式却知之甚少。本研究聚焦于含糖饮料领域——这类饮品对许多人而言构成了显著的自我控制难题。鉴于人们消费含糖饮料的学习历史丰富多样，我们推测，这类刺激的认知表征将呈现高度变异性，并反映出个体对过往消费体验的独特模拟（simulations）或重现。从消费与享受的角度对饮品进行表征，或许能预测消费动机。在三项实验中（总样本量N=457），参与者通过“特征列举任务”描述非酒精饮料——这是一种通过自然语言评估概念认知表征的自由生成任务。我们还测量了消费频率、饮用欲望及摄入量（实验3），并测量（实验1和2）或操纵（实验3）了口渴状态。参与者对饮品的表征展现出高度变异性：每种饮品被报告的独特特征达210-331个。饮品描述中大量出现与消费及奖励体验相关的词汇，含糖饮料尤其显著，且高频消费者的此类描述更为突出。消费与奖励特征对欲望及摄入量的预测力强于口渴状态。这些发现表明，过往奖励性互动的模拟在欲求性刺激的认知表征中扮演关键角色，而理解这些表征或许能为欲求性行为的多个领域提供启示。

含糖饮料的消费动机是什么？为何有些人晚餐时或口渴时选择可乐，而另一些人选择水？我们对这些行为背后的心理过程知之甚少。尽管不健康食品的消费动机已被广泛研究，但含糖饮料的动机机制仍未得到充分探讨——尽管其对健康存在负面影响。每日卡路里摄入量中，高达19%来自饮品中的糖分，而含糖饮料的消费会导致体重增加。含糖饮料是牙齿健康不佳和超重的主要诱因——仅在英格兰，这些问题每年给NHS造成的成本分别为34亿和47亿英镑（英国公共卫生署，2014）。尤其是在近期媒体关注下，许多消费者已意识到含糖饮料的健康影响，但仍难以成功减少摄入量。因此，理解含糖饮料消费动机的底层机制，以及如何有效帮助消费者用更健康的替代品（如白开水）替换含糖饮料，具有重要意义。

我们提出，含糖饮料的吸引力源于消费与奖励模拟。换言之，当人们看到或想到含糖饮料时，会基于过往的奖励性体验，自发模拟（即重新体验）消费该饮品的感官感受与奖励——例如其味道、带来的能量提升及解渴感。这些模拟会触发消费含糖饮料的欲望，尤其在口渴时更为明显。尽管已有证据表明此类模拟在食品消费动机中发挥作用，但此前尚无研究将这一理论应用于饮品领域。本研究将首先系统验证含糖饮料动机的模拟理论，再以创新方式利用该理论促进更健康的选择。

在子项目1中，我们将探究含糖饮料与水所触发的特定模拟。基于我们近期收集的预实验数据，我们预期：含糖饮料比水会触发更多的消费与奖励模拟，尤其在含糖饮料的高频消费者中，且在口渴状态下更为显著。

在子项目2中，我们将把这些消费与奖励模拟与含糖饮料及水的消费动机关联起来。为此，我们将采用一种新颖的非侵入式动机评估方法：测量参与者在观看饮品图像时，在Wii平衡板上轻微前倾的程度。这类细微的趋近动作已被证明能反映动机与欲望。我们预测：更多的消费与奖励模拟将与朝向含糖饮料图像的前倾程度更高相关，尤其在含糖饮料高频消费者中，且在口渴状态下更为显著。

最后，在子项目3中，我们将利用这些发现开发干预方法，帮助消费者用白开水替换含糖饮料。通常，含糖饮料的广告高度聚焦于消费与奖励，而水的广告则侧重纯净度与健康益处。我们提出，可通过增强消费与奖励模拟来提升饮水动机——这与含糖饮料的机制类似。因此，我们将测试：使用能触发饮水相关消费与奖励模拟的图像和文字，是否能提升水的吸引力、增加水的选择并减少含糖饮料的选择。我们将在在线实验与自然场景下的实地实验中，对实际消费者进行测试。

这些实验共同助力我们理解：为何含糖饮料如此难以抗拒，以及健康从业者、干预方案开发者与行业如何提升健康替代品的动机吸引力，以促进更健康的饮品选择。