<p>Data analysed in Study 1.</p>

Handball decisions in the penalty area remain one of the most controversial topics in professional association football, yet they are underexplored in sports science. The purpose of this research was to establish a foundation for understanding the controversy by examining its underlying causes. Two video-based studies quantified how key stakeholders interpret handball incidents and how closely these interpretations align with Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) guidelines. Study 1 involved referees active in German men’s professional football (n = 154) who judged 30 incidents. Study 2 repeated the procedure with professional coaches (n = 31) and players (n = 46) using 18 incidents. Outcomes were Accuracy (accordance with UEFA), Strictness (percentage of incidents deemed punishable), Consensus (within- and between-group agreement), and Reasoning (primary reason for a decision). Referees reached 84.0% Accuracy, which differed by role, performance level, and handball category. Strictness among referees was lower compared to UEFA (42.9% vs. 50%). Coaches and players demonstrated lower Accuracy (63.8% and 67.5%) and Strictness (36.0% and 33.9%) than referees, resulting in significant differences in Consensus across Stakeholder Groups in 11 out of 18 incidents. Reasoning also diverged as referees preferred Naturalness, whereas coaches and players emphasised Avoidability and Impact. These findings reveal systematic differences between governing body guidelines, referee decision-making, and practitioner expectations. The results can inform educational measures and discussions on potential revisions to the handball law. Clearer and more objective criteria, jointly agreed by key stakeholders, are required to improve the consistency and acceptance of handball decisions.禁区内的手球判罚始终是职业足球领域最具争议的话题之一，然而在运动科学领域中对此的研究却相对不足。本研究旨在通过剖析争议背后的根源，为理解这类争议奠定基础。两项基于视频的研究量化了关键利益相关方如何解读手球事件，以及这些解读与欧洲足球协会联盟（Union of European Football Associations, UEFA）的准则契合程度。研究1招募了活跃于德国男子职业足球赛场的裁判（n = 154），让其对30起手球事件进行判罚。研究2则采用相同流程，邀请职业教练（n = 31）与球员（n = 46）对18起手球事件进行判罚。本研究的评估维度包括准确率（与UEFA准则的契合度）、严格性（被判定为应判罚的事件占比）、一致性（组内与组间的共识程度）以及判罚理由（做出判罚的主要依据）。裁判的判罚准确率达到84.0%，该结果会因裁判的角色、竞技水平以及手球类型而有所差异。裁判群体的判罚严格性低于UEFA准则要求（42.9% vs. 50%）。教练与球员群体的准确率（分别为63.8%与67.5%）与严格性（分别为36.0%与33.9%）均低于裁判群体，进而导致在18起事件中的11起里，不同利益相关方群体间的一致性存在显著差异。在判罚理由方面也存在分歧：裁判更倾向于以“动作自然性”作为判罚依据，而教练与球员则更强调“动作可避免性”与“犯规影响”。上述研究结果揭示了赛事管理方准则、裁判判罚决策与从业者预期之间存在系统性差异。本研究结果可为手球规则的教育推广与修订讨论提供参考。为提升手球判罚的一致性与认可度，亟需由关键利益相关方共同商定更为清晰、客观的判罚标准。