Energy transition through community energy, local energy and smart local energy system initiatives in the UK: a systematic review of technologies, ownership and user engagement

The UK energy system is transitioning towards decarbonisation, decentralisation, and digitalisation to meet Net Zero targets. Place-based approaches such as community energy (CE), local energy (LE), and smart local energy systems (SLES) have emerged over the past 15 years to address these goals. SLES integrate electricity, heat, transport, supply, demand, and storage at a local scale to improve efficiency, reduce emissions and costs, and enhance resilience. Yet user engagement, vital to their success, remains limited due to low public trust and weak evaluation. This paper reports a systematic meta-study of 445 CE, LE, and SLES initiatives in the UK (2008–2020), analysing technology, scale, governance, funding, engagement, and evaluation. CE and LE projects focused on generation (52%, 60%) and efficiency (61%, 58%), largely led by community groups and local authorities. SLES, by contrast, centred on smart data (78%) and grid management (89%), with Distribution Network Operators (DNOs) and private actors. Over half of SLES were located in Scotland and Southern England, in areas of grid constraint and renewable penetration. Despite the importance of sustained participation, 14% assessed user engagement longitudinally. The study underscores the need for stronger collaboration between DNOs, local actors and academia to enhance scalability of SLES.