Supporting data for Spatial Abilities and Science Achievement Across Development

Spatial ability has long been recognized as an important cognitive correlate of science achievement, yet critical theoretical and empirical questions, such as which spatial processes are most relevant for science learning, how spatial-science relations unfold across development, and whether spatial ability can be deliberately enhanced to support science education, remain unanswered. These questions were addressed through a coordinated research program integrating cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methodologies.Multidimensional spatial abilities across late childhood and early adolescence were examined in Study 1, with their developmental relations with science achievement mapped. Results demonstrated distinct developmental trajectories across spatial subdomains and identified extrinsic-dynamic spatial ability as the most consistent predictor of science performance across grade levels (Grade 4, Grade 6, and Grade 8).Temporal directionality between extrinsic-dynamic spatial ability and science achievement was investigated in Study 2, using longitudinal modeling that separated between-person stability from within-person change. Reciprocal relations were observed in Grade 4: earlier science achievement predicted subsequent growth in extrinsic-dynamic spatial ability, which in turn predicted later improvements in science achievement. These findings support a mutualistic model of cognitive-academic co-development in the spatial-science domain.Causal relations were tested through a randomized controlled intervention targeting extrinsic-dynamic spatial ability in Study 3. Students receiving targeted spatial training demonstrated greater gains in extrinsic-dynamic and intrinsic-static spatial performance and higher science achievement than an active control group. Spatial gains were retained over time, while science gains showed partial maintenance. The findings indicate generalizable effects of spatial training on science learning in Grade 4 students.Spatial cognition, particularly extrinsic-dynamic spatial processing, as shown in the above studies, plays a critical role in science learning. Spatial and science development unfold through reciprocal interaction, and targeted spatial training can support science achievement. Theoretical models of spatial cognition are advanced, mutualistic frameworks of cognitive-academic development are extended, and evidence-based directions are provided for integrating spatial reasoning into science education.