land surface vulnerability

In this study, we proposed a quantitative framework to assess the land surface vulnerability baseline using time series datasets. Based on annual information of the “water-soil-climate-plant” system, which was characterized by the dynamic of surface water, soil erosion, drought, and vegetation in 1990–2022, we analyzed the spatial heterogeneity of land surface vulnerability baseline and explored its response to shifts in potential factors in the Hohhot-Baotou-Ordos-Yulin urban agglomeration. By incorporating time-series geospatial datasets and dynamic modeling approaches, we provide valuable insights for accurately assessing land surface vulnerability baseline, offering scientific supports for evaluating the resilience of land surface system in arid and semi-arid regions.