5-hydroxymethylfurfural and isoverbascoside alleviate oxidative damage in insulinoma-1 and mouse insulinoma 6 cells by activating autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis

In type 2 diabetes (T2DM), dysregulated glucose and lipid metabolism impairs cellular energy sensing and inhibits autophagy. This leads to accumulation of dysfunctional cellular components, promoting inflammation and oxidative stress, which ultimately activate the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and cell death. However, the regulatory mechanisms by which herbal and natural compounds modulate the balance between autophagy and apoptosis require further elucidation.