Executive Function Vs. Executive Function and Metacognition Training in 7 to 11-year-old Children, 2016-2020

93 children between 7 and 11 years were recruited from under-privileged areas in Edinburgh, Scotland. Pre- and post-tests focused on executive function skills through tests of working memory (backwards Corsi blocks task), inhibition (antisaccade task), and cognitive flexibility (cued task switching). There were three training conditions: Meta EF, Basic EF, and Control. Training consisted of 16 training sessions (45 minutes each) that took place 2-4 times per week. All children were trained in pairs. In the Meta EF group and the Basic EF group, children trained on six different adaptive EF tasks tapping WM, inhibition and flexibility (2 versions each of N-back, AX-CPT, and alternating runs task switching). In the Meta EF condition, children additionally discussed and took part in computerised activities that progressively focused on task reflection, goal setting, strategy selection, and planning. In the basic EF group, children instead participated in colouring and discussion activities focused on resilience. These included discussion of positive thinking, empathy, and self-care. The control group performed the same EF tasks in non-adaptive versions minimally tapping EF (e.g., 1-back task, X-CPT task, single-tasks). They performed the same control activities as the Basic EF group.<p>Executive function (EF), the ability to regulate thoughts and actions, develops rapidly during childhood, supporting increasingly complex and adaptive behaviours. Emerging EF promotes greater autonomy and predicts life success. Specifically, it supports attention in the classroom and the ability to stay on task (e.g., ignore distractions, resist engaging in inattentive or disruptive behaviours, follow instructions), and therefore predicts learning and academic achievement to an even greater extent than intelligence or precursor literacy or mathematical skills.
From early childhood on, EF is lower in children raised in low socioeconomic environments relative to children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Lower EF in these children, which represent about one in six children growing up in Western societies, often becomes more severe over time and is a major risk factor for developmental delay, academic failure, and criminality. Children with lower EF skills tend to have poorer physical and mental health, lower income, and to commit more crimes in adulthood.
Cognitive training interventions may be an effective way to compensate for the long-term risks associated with lower EF in children from low socioeconomic backgrounds and set these children on a successful track. Extant training interventions have focused on basic EF processes, trying to encourage engagement of more EF resources, and task-specific strategies. Such training programmes have yielded promising EF gains but gains generalize rarely or inconsistently to cognitive and academic skills.
We propose to move beyond these limitations by innovatively targeting meta-cognitive reflection on and coordination of basic EF processes (meta-EF). Such coordination ensures adaptive behaviours through differential engagement and dynamic adjustment of EF processes to match constantly changing task demands. Thus, meta-EF training should encourage not only more but also, and foremost, better and more adaptive EF engagement.
We investigate basic-EF and meta-EF training programs in children from low socioeconomic backgrounds, with an emphasis on transfer to academic abilities. Specifically, children will be trained either only on engagement of EF processes, or on engagement of EF processes in conjunction with reflection on the best way to do so as a function of the specific task demands (whereas a third group of children will serve as controls to ensure that any training-related gains cannot be due to greater motivation). Critically, we examine transfer of cognitive gains to other cognitive abilities (e.g., reasoning) and academic learning (i.e., literacy and mathematics). Children will be recruited in three countries (Germany, UK, Japan) to ensure greater generalizability, and two age groups (4-6 vs. 8-10 years) to examine whether EF training is most effective and economically strategic earlier in development.
This work will generate concrete educational instruments and contribute to acting against ever-increasing socioeconomic disparities by improving children's opportunities for educational equality.</p>

本研究从苏格兰爱丁堡的贫困社区招募了93名7至11岁的儿童。前后测通过三项任务评估执行功能（Executive Function, EF）技能：工作记忆（working memory）相关的反向科西积木任务（backwards Corsi blocks task）、抑制控制相关的反眼跳任务（antisaccade task）以及认知灵活性相关的提示性任务转换范式（cued task switching）。实验设置三种训练条件：元执行功能（Meta EF）组、基础执行功能（Basic EF）组与对照组（Control）。训练共包含16次课程，每次时长45分钟，每周开展2至4次，所有儿童均以配对形式参与训练。
在元执行功能组与基础执行功能组中，儿童需完成6种适配性执行功能任务，涵盖工作记忆、抑制控制与认知灵活性三类能力（包括2种变式的N-back任务、AX-CPT任务与交替运行式任务转换范式（alternating runs task switching））。其中元执行功能组额外增加了讨论环节与计算机化活动，逐步聚焦任务反思、目标设定、策略选择与规划能力的训练；而基础执行功能组则通过涂色与讨论活动培养儿童的心理韧性，讨论主题涵盖积极思维、共情与自我关怀。对照组则采用非适配版的执行功能任务，仅轻度调用执行功能资源（例如1-back任务、X-CPT任务与单任务范式），并与基础执行功能组开展相同的非训练类活动。

执行功能（Executive Function, EF）指个体调控思维与行为的能力，在儿童期快速发展，支撑其逐步形成愈发复杂且具备适应性的行为表现。早期执行功能的发展不仅能提升儿童的自主性，还可有效预测其未来人生的成就。具体而言，执行功能能够支持儿童在课堂中的注意力维持与任务专注度（例如忽略干扰、避免注意力涣散或破坏性行为、遵从指令），因此相较于智力、前期读写或数学技能，执行功能对学习成绩与学业成就的预测力更强。
自幼儿期起，成长于社会经济地位较低环境中的儿童，其执行功能水平显著低于社会经济地位较高家庭的儿童。这类儿童约占西方社会成长儿童总数的六分之一，其执行功能水平随年龄增长往往会进一步恶化，且是发育迟缓、学业失败与犯罪行为的主要风险因素。执行功能水平较低的儿童成年后，更易出现身心健康状况不佳、收入水平偏低且犯罪率更高的问题。
认知训练干预或可有效弥补社会经济地位较低家庭儿童执行功能水平偏低所带来的长期风险，帮助这类儿童走上成功发展的轨道。现有训练干预多聚焦于基础执行功能过程，尝试促进儿童调用更多执行功能资源，或训练任务特异性策略。这类训练方案虽已取得了可观的执行功能提升效果，但此类提升极少或难以泛化至其他认知能力与学业技能。
本研究尝试突破上述局限，创新性地聚焦于对基础执行功能过程的元认知反思与协调（即元执行功能，Meta-EF）。此类协调机制可通过差异化调用与动态调整执行功能过程，以匹配持续变化的任务需求，从而保障适应性行为的产生。因此，元执行功能训练不仅应促进儿童调用更多的执行功能资源，更核心的是引导其形成更优质、更具适应性的执行功能运用方式。
本研究针对社会经济地位较低家庭的儿童，开展基础执行功能与元执行功能的训练干预研究，重点考察训练对学业能力的迁移效果。具体而言，儿童将被随机分配至仅训练执行功能过程的基础组，或训练执行功能过程结合任务适配性策略反思的元执行功能组；另有一组儿童作为对照组，以排除训练相关获益仅源于更高动机水平的可能性。至关重要的是，本研究将考察认知获益向其他认知能力（例如推理能力）与学业学习（即读写能力与数学技能）的迁移效果。为提升研究的普适性，本研究将在三个国家（德国、英国、日本）招募儿童，并设置两个年龄组（4-6岁与8-10岁），以探究执行功能训练在发育早期是否更具有效性与经济策略性。
本研究将产出可落地的教育工具，并通过提升儿童的教育公平机会，助力应对日益加剧的社会经济差距问题。