Summary of studies evaluating the association of chewing betel quid with metabolic disease, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality.

CVD, cardiovascular disease; CI, confidence interval;aAdjusted for age and education.bAdjusted for age, alcohol, and education.cAdjusted for gender, age, living area, hypertension, anemia, heart disease, liver disease, arthritis, physical difficulty, smoking, and alcohol.dAdjusted for age, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, cholesterol, triglycerides, alcohol, smoking, physical activity, income, and education.eAdjusted for age, education, occupation, smoking, alcohol, intake of fish, milk, coffee, physical activity, and family history.fAdjusted for age, diabetes duration, BMI, and smoking.gAdjusted for age, tobacco smoking (pack-years), BMI at baseline, use of antihypertensive medications at follow-up, education, land ownership, religion, marital status, and daily intake of meat, vegetables, and fruit.hAdjusted for age, obesity, hypertension, physical activity, education, occupation, total cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine, uric acid, BMI, and log-transformed BUN.iUnadjusted.jAdjusted for hypertension, diabetes, exercise, sedentary job, alcohol, and smoking.kAdjusted for sex, age, education, marital status, ethnicity, alcohol consumption, and smoking.lAdjusted for sex, age, marital status, education, income, alcohol (frequency of intake), smoking, and physical activity.mAdjusted for age, diabetes, hypertension, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triacylglycerol, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, income, and educational level.nAdjusted for age, sex, and BMI.oAdjusted for age, educational level, socioeconomic level, exercise, drinking, and smoking status.pAdjusted for sex, age, smoking, alcohol drinking, dietary intake, and physical activity.qAdjusted for age, education, physical activity, occupation, smoking habits, alcohol intake, dietary factors, and family history of diabetes, hypertension, and cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease in second-degree relatives.*Significant dose-response relationship between chewing betel quid and the event.