Assessing in-situ physico chemical parameters variability of springs in mid-hill region of Nepal

Springs function in the hydrological cycle as natural outflows for groundwater systems and provide reliable potable water for communities. This study evaluates the physico chemical characteristics of 168 perennial springs that fluctuate seasonally across various geological settings (carbonate and non-carbonate dominant lithology), landcovers (cropland, forest, grassland), and elevation categories (Classes I, II, III) within the Seti Khola Watershed in the mid-hills of Nepal. It focuses on on-site physico chemical measurements, including electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, dissolved oxygen, and temperature. Primary data from field measurements of spring attributes and remote sensing, including Landsat-8 OLI satellite imagery, examined the relationship between land surface and spring water temperature. Results show higher precipitation during the wet season dilutes solutes, enhancing dissolved oxygen levels, while the dry season’s higher evaporation rates concentrate solutes. The study highlights variable pH levels in non-carbonate regions, correlating with lower oxidation-reduction potential values. Carbonate terrain promotes stable and higher pH and oxidation-reduction potential values. Higher elevations correlate with lower temperatures and varying landcover, affecting thermal regimes. Seasonal interplay highlights the importance of fundamental hydrogeochemical characteristics in the context of natural processes and anthropogenic influences.