Supplementary file 1_Weakly supervised framework for wildlife detection and counting in challenging Arctic environments: a case study on caribou (Rangifer tarandus).pdf

Caribou populations across the Arctic have declined markedly in recent decades, motivating scalable, consistent, and accurate monitoring approaches to guide evidence-based conservation actions and policy decisions. By providing broad coverage through high-resolution imagery, aerial surveys offer a practical means to monitor wildlife across vast and remote Arctic regions. Manual interpretation from this imagery is labor-intensive and error-prone, underscoring the need for automatic and reliable detection across varying scenes. Yet, such automatic detection is particularly challenging due to severe background heterogeneity, dominant empty terrain (class imbalance), small or occluded targets, and wide variation in density and scale. To make the detection model (HerdNet) more robust to these challenges, a weakly supervised patch-level pretraining based on a detection network’s architecture is proposed. The detection dataset includes five caribou herds distributed across Alaska. By learning from empty vs. non-empty labels in this dataset involving heterogeneous Arctic scenes, the approach produces early weakly supervised knowledge for enhanced detection compared to HerdNet, which is initialized from generic weights. Accordingly, the patch-based pretrain network attained high accuracy on multi-herd imagery (2017) and on an independent year’s (2019) test sets (F1: 93.7%/92.6%, respectively), enabling reliable mapping of regions containing animals to facilitate manual counting on large aerial imagery. Transferred to detection, initialization from weakly supervised pretraining yielded consistent gains over ImageNet weights on both positive patches (F1: 92.6%/93.5% vs. 89.3%/88.6%), and full image counting (F1: 95.5%/93.3% vs. 91.5%/90.4%). Remaining limitations are dominated by false positives from animal-like background clutter, and false negatives related to low animal density occlusions. Overall, pretraining on coarse labels prior to detection makes it possible to rely on weakly-supervised pretrained weights even when labeled data are limited, achieving results comparable to generic-weight initialization.