Botanical origin of the honey samples.

This study investigates the physicochemical properties, pollen composition, and antimicrobial activity of honey samples collected from Kars province, Türkiye. A total of 30 honey samples were analyzed for moisture content (13.9–18.0%), pH (3.44–3.92), electrical conductivity (0.138–0.343 mS/cm), free acidity (13.9–31.5 meq/kg), diastase activity (4.93–28.1 DN), hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) levels (3.5–37.1 mg/kg), sugar profile (fructose: 32.8–41.0%, glucose: 26.2–32.6%, sucrose: 0.1–2.7%, maltose: 1.4–2.7%), and proline content (288.87–1272.9 mg/kg). Pollen analysis identified 52 taxa from 30 botanical families, with Fabaceae, Boraginaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, and Brassicaceae being the most dominant. Of the honey samples, 27 were classified as multifloral and 3 as unifloral. Total pollen counts per 10 g (TPC-10 g) of honey ranged between Group II and Group V categories (2000 to > 100000 grains). The antimicrobial activity of the honey was evaluated against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis using the agar well diffusion method. Inhibition zones ranged from 11 ± 0.55 mm to 24 ± 1.2 mm, with greater efficacy observed against Gram-positive bacteria. Significant correlations were found between diastase activity and Staphylococcus aureus (r = 0.704, p Enterococcus faecalis (r = 0.518, p Klebsiella pneumoniae (r = 0.454, p Pseudomonas aeruginosa (r = 0.384, p Staphylococcus aureus (r = 0.439, p Bacillus subtilis (r = 0.435, p