Data from: Behavioral trade-offs and multitasking by elk in relation to predation risk from Mexican gray wolves

Non-consumptive effects of predation can alter foraging time, stress
levels, and habitat use by prey, potentially resulting in reduced fitness.
However, prey can mitigate the non-consumptive effects of predation by
increasing vigilance, chewing and vigilance synchronization (i.e.,
multitasking), and spatiotemporal avoidance of predators. We quantified
the effects of the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk on
elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior in the southwestern United States. We
conducted behavioral observations on adult female elk and developed
predation risk indices using Mexican wolf GPS collar data, locations of
elk killed by Mexican wolves, and landscape covariates. We compared a
priori models to determine the best predictors of adult female behavior
and multitasking, separately. Metrics that quantified both spatial and
temporal predation risk were top predictors in both datasets. Adult female
vigilance was positively associated with increased predation risk.
Increased predation risk had little effect on the probability of foraging,
but resulted in decreased time spent resting. In a post hoc analysis, the
effect of predation risk on foraging and resting differed across diurnal
periods. During midday when wolf activity was relatively low, the
probability of foraging increased while resting decreased, in areas with
high spatial predation risk. During crepuscular periods when elk and
wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with
increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. Our results suggest
elk are temporally avoiding predation risk from Mexican wolves by trading
resting for foraging, a trade-off often not evaluated in behavioral
studies. The probability of multitasking increased with predation risk,
suggesting that adult female elk may be offsetting the non-consumptive
effects of risk on feeding time. These results highlight potentially
important but often excluded behaviors and trade-offs prey species may use
to reduce the indirect effects of predation and contribute additional
context to our understanding of predator-prey dynamics.