Stability of in situ immobilization of trace metals with different amendments revealed by microbial 13C-labelled wheat root decomposition and efflux-mediated metal resistance of soil bacteria

The aim of the present study was to prove the long-term efficiency of the amendments zerovalent iron grit, zeolite, and Divergan® for trace metal remediation in heavily contaminated soils and to attain a recovery of microbial functionality and diversity by remediation. For immobilization of the trace metals the amendments zerovalent iron grit, natural zeolite, and Divergan®were used. Trace metal total andmobile contentswere determined and bacterial communities were assessed after a SIP experiment with 13C-labelled wheat root by Ion-Torrent Sequencing targeting the bacterial 16S rRNA gene and two trace metal resistant genes for copper and cadmium (copA and czcA gene). The results show that the remediation effect of the three amendments is still stable after five years. The mobile trace metal contents were significantly (≤0.001) reduced in all treatments, except the Cu content in the zeolite treatment. A higher diversity in active metabolizing and growing soil bacteria was observed in remediated soils as compared to the non-remediated control, especially for the Divergan® treatment. The bacterial genera Kribbella, Glycomyces, Inquilinus, Nocardioides, and Lysobacter are the most significantly enriched genera in the 13C fractions of the treated samples. The occurrence of bacterial families, which could be identified carrying efflux-mediated metal resistance genes for Cd/Zn and Cu, were reduced in the remediated soils as compared to the non-remediated control. The most abundant bacterial family for the copA and the czcA gene is Xanthomonadaceae. The pH-value and the tracemetal concentration could be identified as key drivers of bacterial community composition, and functions in trace metal contaminated soils and remediated soils.