Unpacking Validity in Competence-Based Assessments through the 3H Model: Insights from Global CBA Frameworks

This paper examines the validity of Competence-Based-Assessment (CBA) in Zambia through the analytical framework of the 3H Model—Head (knowledge), Hands (skills), and Heart (values). Drawing insights from the Bhutan Competency-Based Assessment (CBA) Test Item Development Guide (BCSEA, 2022), the study redefines validity as the accurate measurement of learners’ holistic competencies across cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. Employing a qualitative descriptive approach, the research integrates policy analysis, teacher interviews, and literature synthesis. Findings indicate that while Zambia’s CBC emphasizes holistic development, assessment practices remain dominated by traditional cognitive testing. Teacher capacity gaps, lack of standardized rubrics, and limited infrastructure undermine validity. The paper proposes a national CBA-aligned assessment framework that operationalizes the Mulenga’s (2024) 3H Model for Zambia, guided by principles of validity, reliability, authenticity, fairness, and flexibility. Recommendations include nationwide capacity building, resource investment, and rubric standardization to align assessment with the CBC philosophy and Africa’s Agenda 2063