Supplementary Material 4

KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) and COG (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) are essential tools for functional annotation and comparative genomics in Escherichia coli analysis. KEGG provides a comprehensive database of metabolic pathways, gene functions, and molecular interactions, allowing researchers to map genes to biological pathways and understand cellular processes, including metabolism, antibiotic resistance, and virulence mechanisms. COG, on the other hand, classifies genes into orthologous groups based on evolutionary relationships, helping identify conserved functional categories across bacterial species. In E. coli, KEGG and COG hits are crucial for studying genomic adaptations, functional diversity, and pathogenic potential, aiding in the identification of critical genes involved in survival, drug resistance, and host interactions. These analyses enhance our understanding of E. coli biology, making them invaluable in bacterial genomics and clinical research.