Budesonide epimer R or dexamethasone selectively inhibit platelet-activating factor-induced or interleukin 1β-induced DNA binding activity of cis-acting transcription factors and cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression in human epidermal keratinocytes

To further understand the molecular mechanism of glucocorticoid action on gene expression, DNA-binding activities of the cis-acting transcription factors activator protein 1 (AP1), AP2, Egr1 (zif268), NF-κB, the signal transducers and activators of transcription proteins gamma interferon activation site (GAS), Sis-inducible element, and the TATA binding protein transcription factor II D (TFIID) were examined in human epidermal keratinocytes. The cytokine interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and platelet-activating factor (PAF), both potent mediators of inflammation, were used as triggers for gene expression. Budesonide epimer R (BUDeR) and dexamethasone (DEX) were studied as potential antagonists. BUDeR or DEX before IL-1β- or PAF-mediated gene induction elicited strong inhibition of AP1-, GAS-, and in particular NF-κB-DNA binding (P < 0.001, ANOVA). Only small effects were noted on AP2, Egr1 (zif268), and Sis-inducible element-DNA binding (P > 0.05). No significant effect was noted on the basal transcription factor TFIID recognition of TATA-containing core promoter sequences (P > 0.68). To test the hypothesis that changing cis-acting transcription factor binding activity may be involved in inflammatory-response related gene transcription, RNA message abundance for human cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and -2 (E.C.1.14.99.1) was assessed in parallel by using reverse transcription–PCR. Although the COX-1 gene was found to be expressed at constitutively low levels, the TATA-containing COX-2 gene, which contains AP1-like, GAS, and NF-κB DNA-binding sites in its immediate promoter, was found to be strongly induced by IL-1β or PAF (P < 0.001). BUDeR and DEX both suppressed COX-2 RNA message generation; however, no correlation was associated with TFIID–DNA binding. These results suggest that on stimulation by mediators of inflammation, although the basal transcription machinery remains intact, modulation of cis-activating transcription factor AP1, GAS, and NF-κB-DNA binding by the glucocorticoids BUDeR and DEX play important regulatory roles in the extent of specific promoter activation and hence the expression of key genes involved in the inflammatory response.