Antidepressant exposure as a source of disinfectant resistance in waterborne bacteria

The emergence of disinfectant-resistant pathogens in water is a major threat to public health. However, whether human-consumed pharmaceuticals can induce bacterial resistance to disinfectants remains unclear. Herein, Escherichia coli was exposed to 12 antidepressants, and susceptibility of antidepressant-induced chloramphenicol (CHL)-resistant mutants to disinfectants was tested. Whole genome sequencing, global transcriptomic sequencing, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. We observed that duloxetine, fluoxetine, amitriptyline, and sertraline significantly increased the mutation frequency of E. coli against CHL by 15- to 2948-fold. The resultant mutants increased the average MIC50 of sodium hypochlorite, benzalkonium bromide, and triclosan roughly 2- to 8-fold. Consistently, marRAB and acrAB-tolC genes, together with ABC transporter genes (e.g., yddA, yadG, yojI, and mdlA), were triggered to increase the efflux of disinfectants out of the cell, while ompF was inhibited, reducing disinfectant penetration into the cell. Additionally, the occurrence of DNA mutations in marR and acrR in the mutants was observed, potentially resulting in increased synthesis of the AcrAB-TolC pump. This study indicates that pharmaceutical exposure can induce disinfectant resistance in bacteria, providing novel insights into the potential source of water-borne disinfectant-resistant pathogens.