The environmental transformation and biological fate of graphene oxide

Graphene oxides (GOs) are widely used in environmental protection, biomedicine, and other fields due to their unique physicochemical properties, high specific surface area, and good biocompatibility. However, with the continuous production and use of GOs, their potential threats to the environment and human health have attracted considerable attentions. This article mainly reviews the environmental transformation mechanisms of GOs, exposure routes to living organisms, and the associated toxic effects. Additionally, it provides an overview of biological fate (including cellular uptake, biodistribution and toxicity) of GOs regulated by protein corona in complex biological fluids. The aim is to provide a scientific basis for exploring and evaluating the environmental behaviors, toxicological mechanisms, and safety of GOs.