Bridging the gap between the regulator and the regulated in safe emptying and transport of faecal sludge: approaches to support scaling service provision

Over 1.5 billion urban residents globally rely on faecal sludge emptying and transport, often provided by a diverse private sector. Effective regulation is essential to ensure safe service delivery, correct market failures, and protect public health and the environment. Government involvement has grown, with local authorities often acting as regulators, translating national policies into action. Understanding how providers respond to regulation is key, particularly in informal, low-visibility services. This thesis examines how to improve compliance with safe practices, focusing on eastern and southern Africa, where regulators and service authorities are scaling up sanitation services. Methods included key informant interviews, literature review, a Delphi study, and a validation workshop. A holistic compliance model was adapted to reflect findings, and a regulatory approach proposed. Challenges include high compliance costs, low provider capacity, and weak enabling environments. Less-recognized barriers—such as societal disgust and lack of trust—also emerged. Moral courage from regulators and a shift toward building 'watchful trust' are essential. Including informal providers through mapping and capacity-based categorization is key. Compliance must be made understandable, easy, visible, and valued. A participatory, responsive approach and targeted public investment are critical for delivering safe services through a regulated private sector.