An examination of sexual harassment, gender discrimination, stalking, and sexual assault among female and male veterans and associations with PTSD and depression

Military sexual trauma among female service members and veterans has been well documented and has become more known among male veterans due to recent research. The primary focus of research has been undertaken using the U.S. Department of Defense umbrella term military sexual trauma, which includes military sexual harassment (MSH) and military sexual assault (MSA) and their impact on mental and physical health. Military sexual trauma will be expanded by assessing (1) sexual traumas with more than one question per sexual trauma and (2) for other potential sexual traumas, i.e. gender discrimination and stalking. This expansion will be defined as military-related sexual trauma (MRST), which includes the experiences of MSH, gender discrimination, stalking, and MSA during military service. ❧ This three-manuscript dissertation aimed to (1) more concisely assess and highlight reported rates of MRST experiences, (2) highlight characteristics of veterans who experience MRST, and (3) evaluate MRST experiences and associations with PTSD and depression among female and male veterans. This dissertation was guided by trauma theory, which suggests that psychological trauma is not a specific traumatic event that affects an individual, but also includes the unique response of one’s social group (i.e. the military). It is possible veterans did not fully address their MRST experiences while in the military due to potential negative career implications and thus, experience negative mental health outcomes as veterans. It is also highly possible that veterans experienced more than one MRST while serving in the military, known as cumulative trauma. Cumulative trauma is addressed in this dissertation by evaluating combinations of MRST experiences among female and male veterans. ❧ Chapter One presents (a) a discussion of the current literature on sexual harassment, gender discrimination, stalking, and sexual assault and associations with health and mental health among women and men, (b) trauma theory as the theoretical framework used to guide the three manuscripts, and (c) a brief introduction and description of each manuscript. Because stalking has not been fully evaluated among female and male veteran populations, Chapter Two (Manuscript 1) evaluated (a) types of stalking, (b) characteristics of veterans who experienced stalking within and between genders, and (c) stalking associations with PTSD and depression. Validated as associated with probable PTSD and depression, stalking was included in combination with MSH, gender discrimination, and MSA in the second and third manuscripts. Chapter Three (Manuscript 2) examined combinations of MRST among female veterans and highlights (a) reported rates of MRST, (b) significant characteristic differences, and (c) significant associations with PTSD and depression. Chapter Four (Manuscript 3) examined combinations of MRST among male veterans and highlights (a) reported rates of MRST, (b) significant characteristic differences, and (c) significant associations with PTSD and depression. Finally, Chapter Five discusses pertinent dissertation conclusions, future directions, and recommendations to include: (1) individually assessing for MRST experiences, (2) assessing for gender discrimination and stalking along with MSH and MSA, and (3) evaluating combinations of MRST to better understand cumulative trauma and associations with health outcomes.