Air pollution and its multifaceted effects on insect pollinators: A Review

Air pollution poses a significant and multifaceted threat to biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and agricultural productivity, with pollinators being among the most affected organisms. Despite increasing political attention and regulatory efforts, concentrations of hazardous air pollutants such as ozone, particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides remain persistently high. These pollutants not only jeopardize human health but also interfere with critical ecological processes, notably plant-pollinator interactions. This systematic review synthesizes findings from 75 empirical studies investigating the effects of air pollution on pollinator species across three main areas: plant-pollinator interactions, reproductive success, and fitness and flight performance. Evidence indicates that air pollutants can impair floral signal transmission and perception, hinder foraging behaviour, disrupt reproduction, alter gene expression, and reduce pollinator survival and flight efficiency. While most research focuses on ozone and a limited range of pollinator taxa—particularly honey bees and bumblebees—there remains a lack of studies on other pollutants and diverse pollinator groups. Few studies address long-term or field-based outcomes, and complex interactions and cumulative effects are underexplored. This review highlights critical knowledge gaps and calls for integrative, multi-species, and field-based approaches to better understand and mitigate the adverse impacts of air pollution on pollinators. Such efforts are essential to safeguard biodiversity, ensure ecosystem resilience, and maintain global food security.