Evolutionary history and genetic parallelism affect correlated responses to evolution

We investigated the relationship between genomic and phenotypic evolution among replicate populations of Escherichia coli evolved for 1000 generations in four different environments. By re-sequencing evolved genomes, we identified parallel changes in genes encoding transcription regulators within and between environments. Depending on both the environment and the altered gene, genetic parallelism at the gene level involved mutations that either repeatedly affected identical codons or domains or were more widely distributed within the relevant genes. Evolved clones were characterized by parallel phenotypic changes in their respective evolution environments but also in the three alternative environments. Phenotypic parallelism for both traits was high for clones that evolved in the same environment, even in the absence of genetic parallelism. By contrast, clones that evolved in different environments revealed a higher parallelism in correlated responses when they shared mutated genes. Alt...