Genotoxicity and mutagenicity of emerging mycotoxins: a systematic review

The increasing detection of emerging mycotoxins in food and feed emphasizes the need to assess their potential adverse health risks. Unlike regulated compounds, many mycotoxins lack toxicological data, especially regarding genotoxicity or carcinogenic potential. This systematic review aimed to identify and prioritize emerging mycotoxins for future research and risk assessment. From an initial list of 102 compounds, 32 were excluded for having already been assessed by EFSA, with 15 also regulated in Europe. The remaining 70 were classified as “emerging” and examined through a PubMed and a Web of Science search. A total of 63 articles were included, encompassing in vitro, in vivo, or both types of studies, in conjunction with contextual data from reviews and human studies. Data were extracted from validated or widely used assays and clustered following international genotoxicity testing guidelines (OECD, EFSA, ICH). In the few studies available, genotoxicity was observed for kojic acid, apicidin, tryptophol and, to a lesser extent, with equivocal or conflicting results, for 3-nitropropionic acid, aurofusarin, averufin, fusaric acid, secalonic acids D and F, and mycophenolic acid. Butenolide was also positive but was only tested in one experiment. Bikaverin, culmorin, and skyrin showed no marked genotoxic effects but were only tested once or twice or in protocols not following OECD standards, yielding limited or conflicting results. Overall, the limited number of assays, significant data gaps and methodological limitations hinder conclusive human health risk assessment, emphasizing the need for standardized and comprehensive genotoxicological testing of the emerging mycotoxins.