Groups of cattle within pastures erratically changed their behavior in response to wolf presence (treatment phase) compared to wolf absence (pre- treatment and post- treatment phases) within a 1.5 km buffer of individual cattle locations in southwest Alberta, Canada during 2004–2005.

1Insignificant across individuals Wilcoxon test's (No Change).
2Single arrows indicate a significant difference between the paired pre- and treatment phases (assessed using a Wilcoxon test) and the direction of the change.
3Double arrows indicate a significant difference between the paired treatment and post-phases (assessed using a Wilcoxon test) and the direction of the change.