Assessing Barriers to the Effective Utilization of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Vaccines among Livestock Farmers in Nigeria: Challenges and Strategic Interventions

Livestock farming is of great economic importance to many Nigerian households, being a major source of animal protein and income (Inyeinyang & Ukpong, 2019). Livestock diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), significantly impact livestock health and productivity and present a significant threat to the livelihood of livestock farmers (Knight-Jones and Rushton, 2013). FMD is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs (Grubman & Baxt, 2004) causing significant economic losses in livestock production through direct losses in the form of weight loss, decreased milk output, and draught power (Young et al., 2013; Ansari-Lari et al., 2017), and indirect losses associated with increased expenditures in disease control (OIE & FAO, 2012). Inactivated vaccines derived from Nigerian-endemic strains have demonstrated efficacy in protecting cattle against FMD (Lazarus et al., 2012). Nevertheless, the vaccine is predominantly inaccessible and not well recognized among livestock farmers, especially smallholder farmers, who frequently lack knowledge of its existence or advantages, resulting in considerable economic losses (FAO, 2012; Sopeju et al., 2025). For livestock farmers, willingness to adopt vaccines is often influenced by factors such as animal breeds, history of disease on the farm, knowledge and perception of risk of diseases, cost of vaccines, production type and size, and farm location (Railey et al., 2018; Robi et al., 2024). Even though FMD vaccines play a vital role in the control of the disease, the barriers to the effective usage of FMD vaccines negatively impact disease control. Furthermore, these barriers not only compromise animal health but also result in economic losses and food insecurity. Previous studies have determined barriers to the utilization of vaccines for control of FMD and other animal diseases in Tanzania (Casey-Bryars et al., 2018; Railey et al., 2018; Railey & Marsh 2019; Williams et al., 2022), Ethiopia (Robi et al., 2024), Kenya and Uganda (Mutua et al., 2019) with the use of different data collection methods such as questionnaires, telephone interviews, and game theory (a model used to analyze how different vaccination conditions and uncertainties influence individual and collective decisions to vaccinate). The barriers were often associated with obtaining or purchasing vaccines as well as vaccine usage on the farm (Williams et al., 2022).Common barriers observed include the high cost of vaccines (Williams et al., 2022; Robi et al., 2024), doubts about vaccine effectiveness (Railey et al., 2018; Railey & Marsh 2019), limited farmer awareness (Robi et al., 2024), and inadequate vaccine supply chains and logistical constraints (Casey-Bryars et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2022; Robi et al., 2024). However, to date there are no known studies assessing the barriers to FMD vaccine utilization among livestock farmers in Nigeria. This research aims to investigate the barriers and challenges comprehensively and propose strategic interventions to enhance vaccine uptake and improve overall disease management in Nigeria. This study forms one of a series of articles in a wider study by Sopeju et al. (2025).