Table 1_From self-efficacy to engineering thinking: the mediating role of student engagement among undergraduate engineering students in China.docx

Engineering thinking has become a central goal of undergraduate engineering education, yet the psychological pathways through which it emerges in design-oriented course contexts are not well understood. This study examined how self-efficacy is associated with engineering thinking among engineering undergraduates in China and tested student engagement as a mediator of this link in courses incorporating design-based learning (DBL) activities. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was completed by 407 students enrolled in 12 engineering-related programs at an applied university in eastern China during the second semester of the 2024–2025 academic year. The questionnaire assessed academic self-efficacy, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement in course design activities, and engineering thinking. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in SmartPLS 4.1.1.2 with 5,000 bootstrap resamples. The measurement model satisfied widely accepted criteria for indicator reliability, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity. In the structural model, self-efficacy predicted higher levels of student engagement and engineering thinking, and engagement was positively related to engineering thinking. Indirect-effect estimates showed that student engagement transmitted part of the effect of self-efficacy on engineering thinking, indicating partial mediation. These findings suggest that students who feel more efficacious are more likely to invest behavioral, emotional, and cognitive resources in design-oriented learning tasks, and that this deeper involvement is linked to more advanced engineering thinking. The study highlights engagement as a key psychological mechanism connecting students’ self-beliefs with complex engineering outcomes in DBL-implemented course settings.