Entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae venom proteins disrupt developmental physiology and reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

This study provides the first demonstration that Steinernema carpocapsae venom proteins are orally toxic to Spodoptera frugiperda, causing significant mortality and developmental arrest in early instars. Ingestion triggers systemic oxidative stress and melanization, severely compromising adult longevity and reducing egg production by over 90%.