geographical patterns and shifting drivers of alien woody landscape plants along the introduction–naturalization–invasion continuum

Rapid urbanization has accelerated the introduction of alien landscape plants, with woody species posing particularly high invasion risks due to their long lifespan, persistent ecological impacts, and low reversibility once established. However, how the geographical distributions of alien woody landscape plants and their underlying drivers vary across different stages of the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum remains poorly understood. Here, we classified 522 alien woody landscape plants into introduction, naturalization, and invasion stages. Using data on climate, human activity, species occurrences, economic use and functional traits, we analyzed the stage-specific richness patterns and macro-scale drivers of alien species, and evaluated shifts in economic value, environmental niche and functional traits along the continuum, along with shifts in their dynamic contributions to distribution ranges.