Supplementary file 1_Developing and validating teacher formative assessment literacy questionnaire in the high-stakes examination culture: a case of China.docx

Formative assessment faces significant challenges in its development and implementation among K–12 teachers in Confucian contexts where high-stakes examinations are prominent. To address the need for a validated, culturally grounded instrument to investigate teachers’ formative assessment literacy (FAL), we developed and validated the Formative Assessment Literacy Questionnaire (FALQ). Drawing on Conceptual-Practical-Socio-emotional framework, the research followed a two-phase process: pilot (N = 96) and main study (N = 309) in China. Exploratory Factor Analysis refined the Conceptual dimension into two sub-dimensions, while Rasch analysis identified and removed misfitting items in the Practical dimension. Confirmatory Factor Analysis further refined the Socio-emotional dimension into two distinct sub-dimensions. The final FALQ comprised 25 items across five validated dimensions, demonstrating strong reliability and construct validity. This study contributes a psychometrically robust and culturally adapted instrument for examining FAL in Chinese K–12 settings and offers insights for other Confucian regions.