Replication Data for Divided Images: How the English Perceive Nationhood and How This Shapes Voting and Opinion

This paper examines how the English ‘see’ their nation. Building on theories of “ethnosymbolism” (Smith 1998) and “nationalism from below” (Edensor 2002), we examine which national elements most resonate with survey respondents as distinctly English. In contrast to views of nationalism as handed down from above or reflecting ‘official’ constitutions and values, ‘national identity’ may emerge collectively as people form attachments to particular symbols and associate them with nationhood, all the while influencing peers. Symbols in turn may be refracted through lenses such as ideology, partisanship, religion, and ethnicity. This approach is distinct from work on boundary criteria; an individual may see the English accent as a unique feature of the nation, for example, without believing it is required for membership. We find that respondents do not agree on which images best represent the nation - such variations are shaped by ethnicity, party, ideology, and religion. In addition, certain symbolic attachments are associated with populist-right issue positions and voting behaviour, even after controlling for political measures. These findings have implications for debates about ethnic vs. civic understandings of nationalism and support the proposition that differences in national identity are more common within than across nations. This also suggests that ‘unofficial’ aspects of the nation (such as culture and landscape) can be a source of political division even if people are generally in agreement about ‘official’ national symbols. Lastly, we compare these findings to a sample of Americans using parallel questions, finding similar results.