Disentangling compound effects of changing disturbance and regeneration across temperate forest landscapes

Global change alters many ecological processes simultaneously. Yet, the
interactive and compound effects of these changes remain difficult to
quantify. Here, we conducted an extensive experiment in silico to address
the question of how changes in disturbance and regeneration interactively
alter temperate forest landscapes across three continents. Interaction
effects between changing disturbance and regeneration processes amplified
ecosystem change by an order of magnitude compared to the effects of
changes in individual drivers. Interaction effects were context-dependent.
At low to intermediate disturbance rates (<1 % yr^-1^), high rates
of regeneration buffered effects on forest structure. In contrast, the
interaction of high disturbance and regeneration rates amplified changes
in forest composition. We conclude that the consequences of changing
disturbance and regeneration need to be assessed jointly to understand
their outcomes. Our findings highlight the importance of interaction
effects of simultaneously changing ecological processes in shaping the
future of forest ecosystems.