Modelling Economic and Environmental Performance of Upcycling Oil Palm Biomass Wastes to Bio-organic Fertilisers: A Circular Economy Construct toward Regenerative Agriculture and Net-Zero Transitions

The confluence of multiple global crises demand infrastructure that fosters resilience, sustainability, regenerative agriculture, and nature-based solutions for meeting UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Existing research silos and linear economic thinking fail to capture the complex interplay between economics, environment, and climate change. The palm oil industry, despite its established sustainability standards, struggles with this complexity and conflicting international policies. The study’s proposed Circular Economy towards Regenerative Agriculture (CE2RA) doctrine and modelling, with its Upcycling Framework emphasizing biomass waste upcycling into bio-organic fertilizers for soil remediation, offers a potential solution and paradigm shift for sustainable land management and regenerative agriculture.