Primers used for qPCR analyses.

BackgroundNatural propolis has been used since decades owing to its broad-spectrum activities. Burn injuries are a global health problem with negative impacts on communities. Bacterial infections usually accompany burns, which demand implementation of antibiotics. Antibiotics abuse led to emergence of microbial drug resistance resulting in poor treatment outcomes. In such instances, the promising alternative would be natural antimicrobials such as propolis.ObjectiveFull chemical profiling of propolis and evaluation of in vitro antibacterial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities as well as in vivo burn healing properties.MethodsChemical profiling of propolis was performed using Liquid chromatography (UHPLC/MS-PDA and HPLC-PDA). In vitro assessment was done using Disc Diffusion susceptibility test against Staphylococcus aureus and infected burn wound mice model was used for in vivo assessment. In vitro antioxidant properties of propolis were assessed using DPPH, ABTS and FRAP techniques. The anti-inflammatory effect of propolis was assessed against lipopolysaccharide/interferon-gamma mediated inflammation.ResultsUHPLC/MS-PDA results revealed identification of 71 phytochemicals, mainly flavonoids. Upon flavonoids quantification (HPLC–PDA), Pinocembrin, chrysin and galangin recorded high content 21.58±0.84, 22.73±0.68 and 14.26±0.70 mg/g hydroalcoholic propolis extract, respectively. Propolis showed concentration dependent antibacterial activity in vitro and in vivo burn healing via wound diameter reduction and histopathological analysis without signs of skin irritation in rabbits nor sensitization in guinea pigs. Propolis showed promising antioxidant IC50 values 46.52±1.25 and 11.74±0.26 μg/mL whereas FRAP result was 445.29±29.9 μM TE/mg. Anti-inflammatory experiment results showed significant increase of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) mRNA levels. Nitric oxide and iNOS were markedly increased in Griess assay and western blot respectively. However, upon testing propolis against LPS/IFN-γ-mediated inflammation, TLR4, IL-6 and TNF-α expression were downregulated at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels.ConclusionPropolis proved to be a promising natural burn healing agent through its antibacterial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.