TABLE 2 in Functional morphology of Pleistocene and Holocene brown bears (Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758): a 3 D geometric morphometric approach to masseter biomechanics and evolutionary ecology

TABLE 2. — Landmarks used for describing mandibular shape. Landmark types determined according to Bookstein (1991). LandmarkTypeDescriptionReflects12Most rostrodorsal point of the symphyseal region, between the first incisorsPosition and size of symphyseal region22Most rostroventral point of the masseteric fossaInsertion, moment arm and size of the deep masseter33Most ventral point on the angular processInsertion, moment arm and size of the pterygoideus and superficial masseter43Most dorsal point on the mandibular condylePosition of the fulcrum of the mandible52Most caudal point of the alveolus of M3Size and caudal extent of tooth row62Most dorsal point on the labial border of the alveolus of M1 between the two cavities for the rootsSize and extent of the grinding and slicing areas of the tooth row, muscle force available at the carnassials72Most caudal point of the canine alveolus on the dorsal rim of the mandibular corpus in line with the tooth rowPosition of the canine