Summary of five meta-analyses.

(A) Overall strength of paternal care adjustment (rAdjust), (B) effect of methodology on rAdjust, (C) effect of multiple paternity (r), benefit of paternal care (b: rBenefit) and costs of paternal care (c: rCost) on rAdjust, (D) overall benefit of paternal care on offspring fitness (rBenefit), and (E) the costs of care on male future reproductive success (rCost).aSpecies/effect sizes.bCI = 95% CI.cp-Value calculated in MCMCglmm = number of simulations greater than 0 corrected for number of MCMC samples. Bold type represents p-values