How the west was won: genetic reconstruction of rapid wolf recolonization into Germany’s anthropogenic landscapes

Following massive persecution and eradication, strict legal protection
facilitated a successful reestablishment of wolf packs in Germany, which
has been ongoing since 2000. Here, we describe this recolonization process
by mitochondrial DNA control-region sequencing, microsatellite genotyping,
and sex identification based on 1341 mostly non-invasively collected
samples. We reconstructed the genealogy of German wolf packs between 2005
and 2015 to provide information on trends in genetic diversity, dispersal
patterns, and pack dynamics during the early expansion process. Our
results indicate signs of a founder effect at the start of the
recolonization. Genetic diversity in German wolves is moderate compared to
other European wolf populations. Although dispersal among packs is
male-biased in the sense that females are more philopatric, dispersal
distances are similar between males and females once only dispersers are
accounted for. Breeding with close relatives is regular and none of the
six male wolves originating from the Italian/ Alpine population
reproduced. However, moderate genetic diversity and inbreeding levels of
the recolonizing population are preserved by high sociality, dispersal
among packs, and several immigration events. Our results demonstrate an
ongoing, rapid, and natural wolf population expansion in an intensively
used cultural landscape in Central Europe.