Museomics unveil systematics, diversity and evolution of Australian cycad-pollinating weevils

Weevils have been shown to play significant roles in the obligate pollination of Australian cycads. In this study we apply museomics to produce a first molecular phylogeny estimate of the Australian cycad weevils, allowing an assessment of their monophyly, placement and relationships. Divergence dating suggests that the Australian cycad weevils originated from the late Oligocene to the middle Miocene and that the main radiation of the cycad-pollinating groups occurred from the middle to the late Miocene, which is congruent with the diversification of the Australian cycads, thus refuting any notion of an ancient ciophilous system in Australia. Taxonomic studies reveal the existence of nineteen Australian cycad weevil species and that their associations with their hosts are mostly non-species-specific. Co-speciation analysis shows no extensive co-speciation events having occurred in the ciophilous system of Australian cycads. The distribution pattern suggests that geographic factors, rather than diversifying co-evolution, constitute the overriding process shaping the Australian cycad weevil diversity. The synchronous radiation of cycads and weevil pollinators is suggested to be a result of the post-Oligocene diversification common in Australian organisms.

Methods
All methods are described in the manuscript and supplementary materials in detail.