transcriptomic analysis was performed on HUVECs co-incubated with H2O2 and L.p EVs (HL group) or medium pellet control (HM group) for 48 hours.

HUVECs were co-incubated with H2O2 and L.p EVs (HL group) or medium pellet control (HM group) for 48 h and subjected to RNA sequencing analysis (Oebiotech Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) with 4 biological replicates per group. RNA integrity was assessed using the RNA Nano 6000 Assay Kit on the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer system (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA). Library construction was performed using the VAHTS Universal V6 RNA-seq Library Prep Kit and sequenced on an Illumina NovaSeq 6000 platform, generating 150 bp paired-end reads.