3D printing of zirconia ceramics for dental applications： materials， technology，and challenges

Zirconia （ZrO₂） is widely used in dental restorations for its excellent mechanical properties， continuously improved optical properties， and durability. CNC machining for zirconia dental restorations is mature yet inflexible， with a phase transformation risk that can affect performance and stability. Additive manufacturing， with its high degree of freedom and accuracy， can create complex 3D geometries unachievable by subtractive manufacturing， while reducing material waste， energy consumption， and production time. These features have drawn increasing attention to additive manufacturing in the dental restoration market. Zirconia-based restorations， a significant part of the dental market， have achieved performance in additive manufacturing comparable to that of traditionally manufactured （CAD/CAM） restorations. Therefore， it is necessary to summarize the latest achievements of zirconia in dental restoration manufacturing. This article summarizes the various applicable additive manufacturing methods （including vat photopolymerization， material extrusion， material jetting， powder bed fusion， and binder jetting） for zirconia-based dental restorations based on the latest research， provides the available dental materials， manufacturing examples， and performance requirements， and identifies the challenges for current additive manufacturing of dental restoratives. This review aims to help dentists and researchers better understand the current zirconia additive manufacturing technology and choose suitable dental materials and methods when manufacturing restorations or prostheses.