Spatiotemporal risk avoidance varies seasonally, relative to risk intensity, in a reestablishing predator–prey system

Predation establishes risk, which can indirectly influence prey behavior and ecology. We evaluated the influence of Mexican gray wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) on habitat selection and spatiotemporal predator avoidance strategies of elk (Cervus canadensis). We fit 866 adult female elk with GPS collars across areas of varying wolf densities within the Mexican wolf experimental population area of eastern Arizona and western New Mexico between 2019−2021. Using step-selection functions, we examined relative intensity of elk use in relation to landscape attributes, estimated predator/prey diel activity, and measures of risk.