Impact of Environmental Variables on the Seasonal Dynamics and Relative Abundance of Endosymbionts in <i>Glossina</i> Species in Northern Nigeria

Over two years, 7,632 tsetse flies were collected and examined for species distribution, symbiont prevalence, and local climate variables (temperature, humidity, and vegetation index). Glossina tachinoides was most prevalent (55.78%), followed by G. morsitans submorsitans (29.36%) and G. palpalis palpalis (14.86%), each showing site-specific distribution. Endosymbiont prevalence rose markedly during the wet season (e.g., Yankari: 73.41% to 94.83%, p < 0.0001), especially for Sodalis, which declined under dry conditions. Strong negative correlations with temperature (r = –0.99, p = 0.0001) and positive correlations with humidity (r = +0.99, p = 0.0005) were observed. These patterns reflect the vulnerability of tsetse-symbiont systems to climate stress and underscore challenges for control strategies. Broad-area methods may suit G. tachinoides, while targeted trapping is more suitable for G. palpalis. The resilience of Wolbachia suggests its utility for paratransgenic control. The study emphasizes the importance of integrated, climate-aware surveillance and intervention strategies to mitigate trypanosomiasis risk.