COMBINED IMPACT OF PM2.5 AND CIGARETTE SMOKE ON GASTRIC MUCOSAL MORPHOLOGY: MECHANISMS OF INJURY AND MODERN APPROACHES TO CORRECTION

ackground: Air pollution and cigarette smoking are among the most significant modifiable environmental risk factors affecting human health. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and cigarette smoke share similar physicochemical properties and biological effects, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and epithelial barrier disruption. However, their combined impact on the gastrointestinal system, particularly gastric mucosa, remains insufficiently explored.