Antimony in PM_2.5: Sources, Global Distribution, and Health Risks

Antimony (Sb) in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has emerged as a critical global concern in environmental science and public health due to its toxicity and long-range atmospheric transport. This study systematically reviews the primary sources of Sb in PM2.5, including anthropogenic sources, such as coal combustion, waste incineration, traffic emissions, and metal smelting, and natural sources, like wind-blown dust and volcanic activity. Utilizing multi-scale data from 170 monitoring sites across 32 countries (1991—2022), we present a comprehensive analysis of the spatiotemporal distribution, seasonal variations, and health risks associated with Sb in PM2.5. The findings reveal: (1) The concentration of Sb in global PM2.5 exhibits significant regional variation, with the highest levels observed in Asia (25.6±76.8 ng/m3) and the lowest in Europe (1.97±2.44 ng/m3), which are closely linked to regional differences in population density, energy consumption, and environmental policies; (2) The disparities in Sb concentrations between China and other regions underscore the role of economic development, energy use, and environmental policies in driving Sb pollution; (3) Seasonal variations in Sb concentrations are pronounced, with significantly higher levels in winter, primarily due to increased coal combustion during the heating season and favorable meteorological conditions; (4) Health risk assessments indicate that children face substantially higher potential risks from Sb exposure than adults, particularly in regions of high concentration (e.g., Asia), highlighting the urgent need for targeted public health protection strategies for children. The study calls for the establishment of comprehensive, multi-scale monitoring networks, the expansion of isotopic source databases, and the development of global collaborative governance frameworks to address the transboundary challenges posed by Sb pollution, providing a scientific basis for tailored pollution control strategies in developing nations.