The variables and formulas used to calculate indirect effects (upper panel) and the experimental results (lower panel).

Lower case letters denote presence of predator and upper case denotes absence of predator. Estimation of the resource release resulting from predators consuming prey (DMIE), the dispersal of prey (DR), the reduction in prey activity induced by a predator (AyR), and the percent contribution of predator-avoidance behaviors in indirect effects.Note: Mean ± standard error.
†Predation resource release is the rate at which mussels were not eaten by mud crabs because the crabs were consumed by toadfish.
‡Activity resource release is the rate at which mussels were not eaten as a result of the changes in crab behavior in the presence of toadfish.
§Dispersal resource release is the rate at which mussels were not eaten as a result of the movement of crabs from the mesocosm to the sanctuary.
||Dispersal and activity resource release is the rate at which mussels were not eaten as a result of all the predator-avoidance behaviors measured.