"off-grid DEUs"

"Simulation data for off-grid DEUsThis paper introduces Digital Energy Units as acyber-physical abstraction for representing, transferring, reserv-ing, and redeeming energy in decentralized systems. Unliketoken-based or purely economic representations, Digital EnergyUnits are derived from physically measured energy and remainconstrained by realizability at the point of control action. We de-velop a layered architecture separating physical energy flow fromdigital coordination, formalize the unit lifecycle through a state-transition model with conservation and feasibility invariants,and introduce a distributed coordination protocol enabling localnegotiation without centralized dispatch. An optimization formu-lation provides a centralized upper bound for benchmarking. Theframework is evaluated through a full-year (8,760 hour) simu-lation of a ten-household residential community on Germany\u2019sBaltic coast. Compared to uncoordinated self-consumption, co-ordinated operation reduces annual grid imports by 16.3%and peak demand by 12.7%, achieving approximately 68% ofthe improvement obtained by a centralized linear-programmingoptimum with perfect foresight. Sensitivity analyses confirmrobustness across variations in battery penetration, photovoltaicpenetration, and transfer losses. The results demonstrate thatphysically grounded digital coordination yields measura"