Data and code for Heterogeneous selection on exploration behavior within and among West European populations of a passerine bird

Heterogeneous selection is often proposed as a key mechanism maintaining
repeatable behavioral variation (“animal personality”) in wild
populations. Previous studies largely focused on temporal variation in
selection within single populations. The relative importance of spatial
versus temporal variation remains unexplored, despite these processes
having distinct effects on local adaptation. Using data from >3500
great tits (Parus major) and 35 nest box plots situated within five
West-European populations monitored over 4-18 years, we show that
selection on exploration behavior varies primarily spatially, across
populations, and study plots within populations. Exploration was,
simultaneously, selectively neutral in the average population and year.
These findings imply that spatial variation in selection may represent a
primary mechanism maintaining animal personalities, likely promoting the
evolution of local adaptation, phenotype-dependent dispersal, and
nonrandom settlement. Selection also varied within populations among
years, which may counteract local adaptation. Our study underlines the
importance of combining multiple spatiotemporal scales in the study of
behavioral adaptation.