Microbial-Human Ecology and Temperature

The intestinal microbiota is thought to modulate immune responsiveness to vaccines. Human studies on this topic, however, have yielded inconsistent results. We hypothesized that the microbiome would influence innate immune responses, and thus vaccine reactogenicity, more directly than vaccine immunogenicity. To test this, we established the µHEAT (Microbial-Human Ecology And Temperature) study, which longitudinally profiled the fecal microbiota, oral body temperature and serum antibody responses of 171 healthy adults (18-40 years old) before and after vaccination for SARS-CoV-2. Increased temperature after vaccination (?T) was associated with habitual diet and with baseline metabolic and immune markers. The microbiomes of ?T-high (?Thi) participants were characterized by high expression of flagellin and an overabundance of the flagellated bacterium Waltera. Fecal samples from ?Thi participants induced more inflammation in human cells and stronger post-vaccine temperature responses in mice compared to ?Tlo samples, suggesting a causal role for the microbiome. Waltera flagellin replicated the inflammatory phenotypes in vitro and this was modulable via a dietary additive. Overall, these data suggest that flagellin from the gut microbiome stimulates innate immunity and vaccine reactogenicity, and that this axis can be manipulated via diet. These findings have implications for improving human vaccine tolerance and immunogenicity.