Unintended positive and negative consequences of climate adaptation interventions for Australia’s native species

Climate adaptation interventions are increasingly being used to reduce the vulnerability of species to climate change. However, limited evidence exists on the unintended consequences of adaptation interventions, particularly in agricultural landscapes where conservation and production goals intersect. We employed an expert elicitation approach to complement a systematic search of peer-reviewed literature to identify unintended consequences resulting from climate adaptation interventions implemented for Australian native species in agricultural landscapes. We documented 158 unintended consequences spanning ecological, agricultural, socio-economic and governance processes, occurring both within and outside intervention sites. 52% were positive co-benefits and 48% were negative consequences. Providing food and water showed a significantly lower probability of generating positive co-benefits. Interventions generated on-site benefits by enhancing habitat or food availability for non-target native species, although this sometimes facilitated invasive species colonisation, competition and predation. Co-benefits for agricultural production were reported through improved soil health, reduced agricultural weeds, and greater resource availability for livestock, although this coincided. Experts frequently noting that insufficient control of invasive species could exacerbate risks of intervention failure. Governance and implementation challenges such as management burden, limited knowledge of, sharing of, or adherence to, recommended practices, and insufficient funding to complete required tasks, often underpinned the emergence of unintended consequences. As only 22.1% of unintended consequences were reported beyond intervention sites, we recommend increased attention to and reporting of off-site impacts. The importance of sustained financial support and strong governance to ensure the long-term effectiveness of climate adaptation interventions and to strengthen monitoring capacity were highlighted.